"Thaum kawm keeb kwm ntawm kuv lub tebchaws, kuv tau pom tias hauv keeb kwm cov ntaub ntawv keeb kwm kev txav chaw zemstvo (yog vim li cas rau nws tsim, nws lub luag haujlwm hauv kev nthuav dav lub xeev ciam teb) thiab teeb meem ntawm Stalinist kev lag luam (tom qab muaj npe nrov XX Congress, cov ncauj lus no yog pom tau tias tseem raug txwv) yog qhov ua tsis tau zoo nyob hauv keeb kwm cov ntaub ntawv …"
typer-zoom (Alias TZ)
Dais lub nra ntawm cov neeg dawb, -
Sau tag nrho cov txiaj ntsig:
Qhib cov neeg uas tau raug tsa los
Koj yog lush vaj
Thiab kev siab phem ntawm cov neeg uas
(Yog li qeeb, ua tsaug!)
Nrog rau kev ua siab ntev rau lub teeb
Los ntawm qhov tsaus ntuj koj rub.
(R. Kipling. Txhais los ntawm M. Frohman)
Milestones hauv keeb kwm. Cia peb pib nrog cov ntawv epigraph, uas hais tias lub ncauj lus ntawm Zemstvo txav mus yog qhov kev txaus siab rau qee tus VO nyeem. Ib yam li lub ntsiab lus ntawm Stalinist kev lag luam. Ntxiv mus, tsis muaj ib yam txwv tsis pub, los ntawm txoj kev, hauv nws. Muaj ntau txoj haujlwm sib txawv. Koj tsuas yog yuav tsum tau tshawb nrhiav. Tab sis kuv tus kheej tsis txaus siab rau kev lag luam. Tab sis hais txog keeb kwm ntawm zemstvo, nws yog qhov tsim nyog los saib xyuas cov tub ntxhais kawm tiav, uas tau txiav txim siab qhov kev txav zemstvo hauv nws cov lus piav qhia. Yog li kuv paub qee yam txog nws. Thiab peb ib txwm paub dab tsi txog qhov zemstvo? Yeej yog dab tsi Lenin hu nws "lub log thib tsib hauv lub laub ntawm tsarist kev ywj pheej." Tab sis yuav ua li cas peb tuaj yeem kawm paub qhov no me ntsis ntxiv hauv qhov nthuav dav, tej zaum tom qab ntawd qee yam txaus nyiam tseem yuav pom? Piv txwv li, tias zemstvo hauv Russia muaj keeb kwm keeb kwm keeb kwm, thiab tus thawj tswj hwm nws tus kheej, thawj Romanov, tshuav nws lub hwj chim tsis yog rau leej twg, uas yog Zemsky Sobor, uas tau ntsib hauv xyoo 1613. Thiab tsuas yog nrog kev ntxiv dag zog rau kev tsis ncaj ncees hauv tebchaws Russia, lub luag haujlwm ntawm zemstvo tus kheej-tsoomfwv poob mus rau yuav luag xoom. Thiab mam li nco dheev … dua, yog vim li cas? Los ntawm txoj kev, ib tus tuaj yeem pom zoo nyeem Lenin txoj haujlwm "Cov Neeg Tsim Txom ntawm Zemstvo thiab Annibals of Liberalism," tab sis nws muaj 76 nplooj ntawv thiab nws tau hais meej meej hauv qhov xwm txheej. Thiab niaj hnub no kev tshaj tawm ntawm lub sijhawm ntawd tsis tshwj xeeb rau peb. Tab sis nws ua rau nkag siab kom paub qhov tseeb. Yog li …
Lub teb chaws Ottoman thiab tsoomfwv tus kheej: Cov phooj ywg lossis cov yeeb ncuab?
Ntawm qhov kev hloov pauv zoo uas Alexander II tus Liberator tau ua hauv Russia hauv 60-70s. XIX caug xyoo, kev hloov kho zemstvo nyob rau qhov chaw tseem ceeb heev, thiab tsis muaj qhov xav tsis thoob. Tom qab tag nrho, nws, qhov tseeb, tau ua rau muaj kev tswj hwm tus kheej hauv tebchaws Russia. Thiab qhov ntawd tseem ceeb heev. Tsis muaj qhov xav tsis thoob paub Slavophile Aksakov tau hais tias cov neeg Lavxias tsis yog neeg xeev. Nws qhia nws lub tswv yim txog lub hwj chim, tab sis nws tsis xav kav nws tus kheej, uas yog vim li cas ntau tus neeg dag ntxias tau yooj yim ntawm nws caj dab thiab zaum. Tab sis ntawm no nws yog qhov zoo tshaj plaws - lub sijhawm rau qhia kev tswj hwm tus kheej tau qhib. Txawm li cas los xij, nws tau nyob hauv Russia (yog Zemsky Sobor cog thawj Romanov ua huab tais!) Txawm tias … ua ntej Peter I, leej twg ua rau nws txo qis. Cov tswv xeev thiab cov neeg sawv cev - qhov no yog tam sim no yog lub zog hauv av, thiab hauv qab Catherine II, tus thawj coj -tub ceev xwm tau ua li ntawd. Txawm hais tias Catherine tau muab lub zog ntau rau kev sib sau ua nom ua tswv nrog xaiv cov thawj coj ntawm lub taub hau, qhov no tseem yog tsoomfwv tus kheej, tab sis txwv, ntawm tus yam ntxwv hauv chav kawm.
Tab sis tib lub sijhawm, kev tswj hwm tus kheej muaj nyob hauv lub zos. Tsis muaj leej twg tso tseg nws nyob ntawd. Nyob deb nroog "ntiaj teb" txiav txim siab txhua yam teeb meem thiab xaiv cov neeg sawv cev rau kev sib sau ua ke. Muaj cov txwj laus hauv zos, thiab nrog lawv sau ntawv. Tsuas yog cov neeg ua liaj ua teb hauv xeev tuaj yeem koom nrog hauv kev ua haujlwm, tab sis tom qab xyoo 1861 txoj cai no txuas ntxiv rau txhua tus neeg ua liaj ua teb.
Ntxiv mus, zemstvo tau tsim tsis nrawm, tab sis nthuav dav. Thaum pib xyoo 1859, Alexander II tau tsim txoj haujlwm, uas tau tso siab rau tsim txoj haujlwm rau lub koom haum zemstvo cov koom haum. Lub Commission tau hais rau hauv qab no:
"Nws yog qhov tsim nyog los muab kev tswj hwm tus kheej kev lag luam hauv lub nroog nrog kev sib koom siab ntau dua, muaj kev ywj pheej ntau dua thiab muaj kev ntseeg siab dua."
Cov thawj coj tau tso siab rau Minister of Internal Affairs P. A. Valuev, ntxiv mus, tsar tau thov los ntawm nws tias qhov "rooj plaub" no yuav tsum ua tiav yam tsis tau ua ntej Lub Ib Hlis 1, 1864. Thiab raws li nws tau qhia, lawv tau ua li ntawd: "Txoj Cai ntawm Zemstvo Cov Tsev Kawm Ntawv" tau pom zoo raws sijhawm.
Raws li txoj haujlwm, cov neeg ntawm txhua chav kawm, uas nyob hauv lawv lub nroog muaj av lossis lwm yam khoom, nrog rau cov zej zog neeg zej zog, tau txais txoj cai, los ntawm cov neeg raug xaiv tsa, raug xaiv mus rau lub nroog thiab lub xeev zemstvo cov rooj sib tham, koom nrog ntau yam kev lag luam. Zemstvo pawg sab laj - xeev thiab uyezd pawg sab laj - tau ua lag luam ncaj qha. Tam sim no zemstvos, thiab tsis yog lub xeev, yuav tsum tau saib xyuas cov khoom tseem ceeb hauv nroog, yog nws yog txoj kev, muab cov pej xeem nrog zaub mov noj, kev kawm rau pej xeem thiab kev saib xyuas kev noj qab haus huv. Qhov twg kom tau txais zemstvo rau tag nrho cov nyiaj no? Zoo - lawv xav txog qhov no ib yam, muab cov zemstvos txoj cai rau tshwj xeeb "zemstvo nqi." Nws yog qhov pom tseeb tias thawj qhov chaw hauv kev sibtham zemstvo tau muab rau cov neeg muaj koob npe raws li cov neeg muaj kev txawj ntse tshaj plaws, muaj kev paub txog kev tswj hwm thiab … nyiaj txiag ruaj ntseg. Txawm li cas los xij, kuj muaj zemstvos, uas cov neeg ua liaj ua teb feem ntau ntawm cov xaiv (Vyatka zemstvo, Perm). Thiab nws yog los ntawm kev ua haujlwm hauv zemstvos uas cov neeg ua liaj ua teb tau kawm paub tsis yog tsuas yog kawm, tab sis kuj yog pej xeem ntawm lawv lub tebchaws.
Cov txheej txheem yog ntev, tab sis tsim nyog heev
Zemstvo, dua, tsis tau qhia nyob rau hauv Russia tam sim ntawd. Thawj qhov zemstvos tau tsim hauv xeev Samara thaum Lub Ob Hlis 1865, thiab tom qab ntawd hauv 17 lwm lub xeev. Thaum lub sijhawm tuag ntawm Alexander II, zemstvos twb nyob hauv 33 lub xeev ntawm European ib feem ntawm Russia. Txawm li cas los xij, zemstvos tsis tau tsim nyob hauv 12 lub xeev sab hnub poob thiab nyob hauv cov xeev uas tsis tshua muaj neeg nyob Astrakhan thiab Arkhangelsk. Tsis muaj ib qho hauv thaj chaw ntawm kev cog lus cog lus ntawm Cossacks. Lawv muaj lawv tus kheej kev tswj hwm tus kheej, thiab nws tsis raug tso tseg.
Zemstvos tau mob siab rau ua haujlwm kho mob, ntau npaum li ntawd hauv xyoo 1877 Alexander II tau qhia ua tsaug rau ntau tus zemstvos rau qhov no. Vim li cas xyov xyoo 1877? Yog li muaj kev ua tsov rog, thiab zemstvos tau qhib ntau lub tsev kho mob thoob plaws lub tebchaws thiab tau teeb tsa cov nyiaj thiab khoom los pab cov tub rog raug mob. Thiab yog tias nyob hauv tsev kho mob hauv xeev qhov tseem ceeb ntawm cov neeg ua haujlwm kho mob yog txiv neej, tom qab ntawd hauv tsev kho mob zemstvo - poj niam, thiab nws tau muab tawm tias lawv cov txiaj ntsig tsis tsuas yog tsis txo qis, tab sis, ntawm qhov tsis sib xws, nce! Classics ntawm peb cov ntawv Lavxias A. P. Chekhov thiab MA Piv txwv li, M. A. Bulgakov tau sau ib zaj dab neeg zoo "Cov Ntawv ntawm Tus Kws Kho Mob Hluas", luam tawm thawj zaug xyoo 1925-1926 ntawm nplooj ntawv ntawm cov ntawv xov xwm "Tus Kws Kho Mob" thiab "Red Panorama".
Raws li AP Chekhov, raws li kev xav ntawm tus kws kho mob zemstvo ntawm Serpukhov zemstvo PI Kurkin, "Chekhov yog tus kws kho mob zemstvo zoo tshaj plaws. Nws suav nrog kws kho mob thiab tus kws tshaj lij hauv zej zog, tus kws tshawb fawb thiab tus kws tshaj lij."
Thaum xyaum ua haujlwm hauv Melikhovo, nws tau sim tsim lub koom haum tshwj xeeb ntawm cov kab mob ntawm daim tawv nqaij hauv Moscow, tab sis tib lub sijhawm thov kom nws khaws nws "cuam tshuam hauv txoj hmoo ntawm Moscow tshuaj" qhov zais cia. Thiab ntawm no yog qhov nws sau rau ntawm nplooj ntawv ntawm nws phau ntawv:
"Cov kws kho mob tsis zoo thiab cov kws kho mob tsis muaj kev nplij siab xav tias lawv ua haujlwm tib lub tswv yim, txij li lawv pheej xav txog nyiaj hli, hais txog ib qho mov ci."
Txawm li cas los xij, rau cov neeg ua teb, uas tom qab ntawd tau txais kev kho mob los ntawm poj niam txiv neej, txawm tias kev pab ntawm qhov txwv tsawg thiab kev muaj peev xwm ntawm cov kws kho mob zemstvo yog khoom plig tiag tiag los ntawm Vajtswv, uas tau cawm ntau tus tib neeg txoj sia.
Qhov teeb meem ntawm kev kawm thawj zaug hauv tebchaws Russia thiab cov tsev kawm zemstvo
Nws tau nyob hauv txhais tes ntawm zemstvo uas feem ntau ntawm thawj qhov kev kawm rau pej xeem tau nyob. Qhov kev kawm ntawm cov tsev zemstvo tau muab rau kev kawm txog Txoj Cai ntawm Vajtswv, Lub Koom Txoos cov lus Slavonic, cov hauv paus ntawm kev sau ntawv Lavxias thiab kev sau ntawv, lej lej, kos duab, hu nkauj, thiab tseem, txawm hais tias tsis tas li thiab nyob txhua qhov chaw, kawm hauv keeb kwm ib txwm muaj, thaj tsam twg thiab natural science tau ua. Hauv cov tsev kawm nyob deb nroog, kev paub txog kev ua liaj ua teb tau muab rau menyuam yaus. Cov phau ntawv kawm thiab cov phiaj xwm ntawm cov tsev kawm zemstvo tau tsim los ntawm cov kws qhia ntawv zoo ntawm Russia xws li K. A. Ushinsky, F. E. Korsh thiab F. I. Bulgakov. Raws li, tus kws qhia tshwj xeeb lub tsev kawm ntawv tau tsim rau cov menyuam ntawm zemstvo, tsim los rau plaub xyoos ntawm kev kawm, yog li ntawd lawv yuav npaj cov kws qhia ntawv rau zemstvo cov tsev kawm ntawv, Hnub Sunday cov tsev kawm rau cov neeg laus tau qhib, cov tsev qiv ntawv, chav nyeem ntawv tau tsim, thiab kev mus ncig ua yeeb yam qhia tau tuav. Txoj haujlwm no (nrog rau txoj kev kawm nws tus kheej) tau piav qhia hauv txoj hauv kev zoo heev hauv phau ntawv los ntawm ID Vasilenko "Lub Neej thiab Taug txuj kev nyuaj ntawm Zamorysh".
Muaj ob hom tsev kawm ntawv zemstvo: ib chav kawm, tsim los rau peb lub xyoos ntawm kev kawm thiab rau tsib caug tus tub ntxhais kawm nrog ib tus kws qhia ntawv (tsuas yog lub tsev kawm ntawv tau piav qhia hauv Vasilenko phau ntawv), thiab ob chav kawm, qhov uas tau kawm lawm plaub xyoos, muaj ntau dua 50 tus tub ntxhais kawm thiab ob tus kws qhia ntawv. Raws li, txhua yam nyob ntawm no yog nyob ntawm qhov loj ntawm lub zos, tus naj npawb ntawm cov menyuam hnub nyoog kawm ntawv thiab, ntawm chav kawm, ntawm cov nyiaj txiag teeb meem ntawm zemstvo pawg sab laj ntawm lub zos volost.
Hauv thawj xyoo kaum ib leeg, ntau dua 10 txhiab lub tsev kawm ntawv zemstvo tau tshwm sim hauv tebchaws Russia. Los ntawm 1911, twb muaj 27,486 ntawm cov tsev kawm ntawv no, los ntawm 1914 muaj ntau dua 40,000, uas yog, qhov tseeb, kev kawm thoob ntiaj teb thawj zaug hauv lub tebchaws tau qhia txog qhov tseeb thiab qhov tseeb los ntawm kev siv zog tsis yog ntawm lub xeev, tab sis ntawm zemstvo! Thaum pib ntawm lub xyoo pua 20th, tus xibfwb zemstvo tau txais 30 rubles ib hlis; thiab nrog qhov kev pab cuam tsib xyoos twb 37 rubles 50 kopecks. Ntxiv mus, 5 rubles tau them rau nws los ntawm lub xeev zemstvo thiab 2 rubles thiab ib nrab rau hauv cheeb tsam zemstvo. Lub sijhawm ntawd, tus poj niam hauv chav kawm tau txais 30 rubles yam tsis tau kawm hauv chav ua si hauv xeev. Tab sis nws tau xaum chav tsev, thiab tus xibfwb zemstvo tau muab cov tsev nyob hauv lub xeev (raws li txoj cai, nws yog chav cais nyob hauv tsev kawm ntawv lub tsev nws tus kheej), lossis yog tias nws xaum chav tsev nyob hauv lub zos, ces lub tsev xaum no tau them rau nws. Zoo, tus nqi dua … Thaum pib ntawm lub xyoo pua nees nkaum hauv cov nroog hauv nroog tau raws li hauv qab no: tsib caug kopecks tso cai yuav ob "qaib" ntawm kev ua lag luam (cov qaib me uas tsis tau txais txiaj ntsig los ua txheej thiab tsis txhais tau tias bluish -skinny saib peb paub!), Ob lub ncuav "franzolki" (Lawv tseem muaj nyob - sib tw, ci nrog lub qe greased) thiab pob luj taws ntawm qe. Ntawd yog, nws muaj peev xwm pub mis, thiab txawm tias tsis zoo txhua. Ib qho ntxiv, txhua yam hauv lub zos txawm tias pheej yig dua, thiab cov kws qhia ntawv, zoo li cov pov thawj, thiab cov neeg ua haujlwm hauv nroog tau txais "nqa". Me ntsis, tab sis … thiab tsis phem tshaj qhov lwm tus coj tuaj.
Tawm tsam kev hloov pauv … thiab rov kho dua
Tom qab kev tua neeg ntawm Alexander II, Alexander III tau sim tso cov haujlwm ntawm zemstvos nyob rau hauv kev tswj hwm nruj, vim nws tau sib cav tias, siv cov zemstvos ua npog, ob qho tib si kev ywj pheej thiab txawm tias cov neeg tawm tsam ua rau muaj kev kub ntxhov rau lub xeev los ntawm lawv. Lawv tau tshaj tawm txoj haujlwm ntawm zemstvo tus thawj coj ua lub luag haujlwm rau tsoomfwv, thiab kev saib xyuas nruj tau tsim los qhia rau hauv cov tsev kawm hauv zemstvo kom tsis muaj kev ntxeev siab yuav nkag mus rau ntawd. Ntawm qhov tod tes, cov tsev zemstvo tsis raug kev puas tsuaj los ntawm kev lag luam, lossis hauv kev kho mob, kws kho tsiaj thiab tsiaj txhu. Ntxiv mus, thaum ntxov 1890s. lub xeev kev pab rau zemstvos twb txog 60 lab rubles ib xyoo. Tom qab ntawd zemstvos lawv tus kheej txiav txim siab. Lawv tau siv kwv yees li ib feem peb ntawm cov nyiaj no rau kev saib xyuas kev noj qab haus huv rau cov pej xeem, thiab ib feem rau ntawm kev kawm rau pej xeem.
Nicholas II txuas ntxiv kev coj ua ntawm kev tsim cov tsev zemstvo hauv Russia. Xyoo 1897, nws tau pom zoo txoj haujlwm ntawm Minister of Internal Affairs I. L. Goremykin rau lawv txuas ntxiv mus rau Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan, Orenburg thiab Stavropol xeev. Nws tau txiav txim siab los tsim lub xeev zemstvo cov rooj sib tham hauv cuaj lub xeev sab hnub poob Lavxias, nrog rau hauv Transcaucasia.
Thaum Thawj Tsov Rog Thoob Ntiaj Teb thib 1 pib, zemstvos tau teeb tsa ntau lub tsev kho mob, uas, ntxiv, poj niam ua haujlwm rau feem ntau: raws li kws kho mob, kws kho mob, thiab cov viv ncaus, txij li cov txiv neej kws kho mob tau npaj rau hauv pab tub rog. Nws tau dhau los ua qhov tseeb tias kev muab cov tub rog nyob deb ntawm txoj hauv kev zoo tshaj plaws, thiab zemstvos kuj tau koom nrog kho qhov xwm txheej. Nws tau mus txog qhov uas tsoomfwv tau muab rau lawv txawm tias yog ib feem ntawm cov tub rog xaj, thiab … lawv txoj kev ua tiav raug kho sai.
Tsis muaj kev sib kis nyob rau hauv pab tub rog Lavxias lossis tom qab thaum ua tsov rog, thiab qhov no yog qhov txiaj ntsig zoo ntawm zemstvo. Lub zemstvo kuj tsim lub npe "cov lus luv luv" - qhov hu ua "pawg neeg ya" ntawm kws kho mob thiab kws saib xyuas neeg mob, uas tau pab sai tshaj plaws tuaj yeem pab cov neeg raug mob - ib hom lus Lavxias "MES tsev kho mob". Lawv tau tuaj tos ntawm tshav rog, muab ntaub qhwv sai thiab muab tso rau hauv tsev kho mob ib ntus. Thiab rau txhua qhov no, nws tsis yog tsev kho mob tub rog thiab kws kho mob uas yog lub luag haujlwm, tab sis cov tsev kho mob zemstvo, uas txo qis lub nra hnyav rau cov tub rog kho mob.
Pawg Neeg Sawv Cev Tseem Ceeb rau Kev Pabcuam Tub Rog ntawm Txhua Lub Tebchaws Lavxias Zemstvo thiab Lub Nroog Union (Zemgor) tau tsim, uas txiav txim siab muab cov tub rog nrog txhua yam nws xav tau, los ntawm kev npaj rau lub plhaub, coj mus rau nws tus kheej txhais tes. Tab sis tsoomfwv tau ntshai ntawm qhov kev cia siab ntawm "zej zog" thiab pom zoo kom xa mus rau nws tsuas yog ua tiav kev ua haujlwm nruab nrab.
"Koj puas mus ntsiag to" thiab txhua yam yuav xaus nrog kev hloov pauv?
Zemstvos khaws cov ntaub ntawv tseem ceeb heev, uas dhau los ua lub hauv paus ntawm Lavxias kev tshawb fawb nyiaj txiag, muab nyiaj qiv, txawm hais tias me me, rau cov neeg ua liaj ua teb, zemstvo kws lij choj tiv thaiv cov cai ntawm cov neeg ua liaj ua teb hauv tsev hais plaub thiab feem ntau ua tiav. Ntawd yog, maj mam, yog - thiab tsis muaj leej twg sib cav nrog qhov no, tab sis cov neeg Lavxias tau ntseeg tseeb tias cov tib neeg tuaj yeem daws lawv cov teeb meem ntawm lawv tus kheej, yam tsis muaj kev cuam tshuam los ntawm lub xeev, thiab tias kev cuam tshuam ntawm lawv ib feem yog nyob deb ntawm kev noj qab haus huv.. Thiab nws tau muab tawm tias cov neeg tsim ntawm kev hloov kho Lavxias tau yuam kom tib neeg xav txog cov lus nug tseem ceeb: dab tsi tseem ceeb dua hauv lub tebchaws - lub zog ntawm tus tswj hwm lossis nws cov pej xeem lawv tus kheej, thiab nws puas tuaj yeem txwv nws lub hwj chim ntau li cas? ?
Lawm, Bolsheviks, tau los ua lub hwj chim, tsis tuaj yeem lees paub tias muaj nyob hauv lawv lub tebchaws ntawm qhov muaj txiaj ntsig zoo, thiab qhov tseem ceeb tshaj plaws, kev tswj hwm tus kheej yog ywj siab ntawm lawv. Yog li ntawd, xyoo 1918, zemstvo cov tsev haujlwm ntawm txhua qib thiab lus qhia - ob qho kev tiv thaiv thiab kev ywj pheej - tau raug tshem tawm txhua qhov chaw, lawv cov nyiaj txiag tau pauv mus rau lub tebchaws Soviet, thiab txhua lub tsev kawm ntawv zemstvo, cov kws kho mob thiab tsev kho mob tau dhau los ua lub xeev.
